Aggression

Buss (1961) defined aggression as 'a response that delivers a noxious stimulus to another organism.'  Aggression is ubiquitous; it can be present at all ages and is displayed by both sexes. This essay will consider the Social Learning and Institutional aggression theories and evaluate the strategies they propose for behaviour modification and a comparison of aggression that may be attributed to the Biological aggression theory.

The Social Learning Theory (SLT) suggests that children model their behaviour through observational learning by watching others and may explain why children imitate both positive and undesirable behaviour.  Bandura's (1963) bobo doll experiment supports this theory and suggests that behaviour is more likely to occur due to vicarious reinforcement.  Furthermore, Bandura suggested that viewing aggressive behaviour was not cathartic but led to aggressive behaviour modelling.

SLT could be applied to the behaviour modification of reducing aggression through observing non-aggressive role models.  This may be ingrained into culture, as highlighted in Christiansen's (2012) study of the Kung San people.  This study was able to show that aggressive behaviour was rare in the Kung San people.  Kung San parents do not use physical punishment and aggressive behaviour is not valued, consequently, the children do not show aggressive behaviour.  The study supports the SLT of aggression and how its principles can be used to reduce aggression as very low levels of aggression were found.

Specific programmes have been adapted from SLT and can be used to educate and target behaviour modification, for example, 'positive parenting' where role models (parents) demonstrated desired behaviours.  Exposure to other role models is restricted by limiting and controlling influences upon children, for example, TV, internet and video games.  The programmes also teach self-control by non-aggression problem-solving.  During positive parenting, parents are trained to praise appropriate behaviour and communicate effectively and ignore unwanted behaviours.  Harsh and inconsistent discipline, for example, corporal punishment and excessive scolding, are discouraged as studies have indicated that they beget aggression (Gershoff 2002).  Weymouth's et al. (2011) research on positive parenting showed reduced aggression levels in parents and children.  They also showed improvements in knowledge of behaviours and beliefs related to violence prevention, media violence literacy and anger management.  Their children showed a reduction in behaviour problems and bullying behaviour.  These behaviour modification approaches supported by empirical evidence indicates that SLT is a powerful vehicle for behaviour modification.  However, it would indicate that SLT is inadequate in explaining all types of aggression; therefore, it provides a limited range of strategies in terms of the behaviour modification of reducing aggression.

Reactive aggression may be better explained by the Frustration-Aggression hypothesis, which argues that aggression is the outcome when individuals are prevented from achieving perceived goals; building frustration leading to aggressive energy.  The act of releasing, relieving strong or repressed energy is cathartic because the frustration is satisfied (catharsis).  This suggests that if the build-up of energy is not released, individuals would aggressively explode; this may be expressed indirectly because the frustration may be abstract or too risky or unavailable to perform.  It may also be argued that Frustration-Aggression is seen in Institutions, such as prisons; however, it may not be the sole driving force in this arena.  Institutional aggression has two main theories: Dispositional and Situational explanations.

The Dispositional explanation suggests that aggression is imported due to the aggressive disposition or traits of the prisoner.  Irwin and Cressey's (1962) model suggest a correlation of risk factors such as age, social class, substance abuse, victimisation, family criminality, gang membership with higher levels of aggression in those individuals in any setting; for example, these individuals may experience or rationalise their aggressive behaviour as being 'normal'.  Consequently, this brings a concentration of aggressive traits in individuals into the prison, creating a normative subculture of aggression.  In contrast, the Situation explanation suggests that prisoners' aggression is a result of the environment, such as, deprivations, for instance, the pressures of incarceration, such as loss of liberty, autonomy, the threat to personal security, overcrowding and noise.  These factors can cause mental and physical ill-health and result in higher rates of aggression.

Isolating known gang members as an intervention would suggest less opportunity for prisoners to join a gang and act violently.  (Fischer, 2001)  Furthermore, environmental changes can be effective in behaviour modification in prisons. Wilson's (2005) pilot at HMP Woodhill showed reducing overcrowding and controlling noise and temperature successfully lowered aggression levels.  This approach is supported by the Scandinavian normalisation model which aims to reflect normal life wherever possible and making the environment as comfortable as possible by reducing overcrowding, ensuring prisoners have some privacy, maintaining cleanliness of the environment and providing adequate sanitation.  Further successful strategies to lower aggression and recidivism rates involved controlling lighting and noise, providing access to natural views from cells, and having smaller communities within prisons where possible. Staff were also adequately trained and given a focus on rehabilitation.  Thus, guards become role models and were trained to defuse situations before they happened.  (Deady, 2014)

Another behaviour modification technique involves making changes to a prisoner's behaviour through operant conditioning, using a token economy.  Good behaviour is rewarded with tokens (secondary reinforcers) that can be traded for desirable privileges (primary reinforcers) and undesirable behaviour is discouraged by removing the tokens.  This behaviour modification is designed to help users understand the link between behaviour and consequences.

This technique's effectiveness depends on the consistency of staff training and can be affected by a large staff turnover.  Field et al. (2004) confirms this as an effective behaviour modification as young male offenders who experienced a token economy were less likely to re-offend one to two years later.

Other strategies are adaptions from SLT, including CBT and anger management.  CBT appears to effectively reduce recidivism rates for criminal behaviour; however, anger management is moderately effective in reducing anger and aggression. (Hoffman, 2013) These studies support the Institutional management of behaviour modification inasmuch as they successfully reduce aggression.  Nevertheless, they cannot bring about behaviour change in all situations; nor can they predict with certainty what changes in behaviour will occur.

In contrast to the above theories, the biological approach believes that aggression is caused by physiological processes. 

Different areas of the brain are identified as specialised for certain functions.  The amygdala is responsible for perceptions and reactions to aggression and fear; the hippocampus involved in memory; the hypothalamus is responsible for our autonomic nervous system (neurons) and our endocrine system (hormones) and it is concerned with receiving and transmitting information primarily from the amygdala and the hippocampus.  These interconnected structures are part of the limbic system (the oldest and innermost structure of the brain) which regulates behaviour and emotions, including responses to reward and punishment.

Pardini's et al.'s (2004) study demonstrated a lower amygdala volume correlated to a higher level of aggression and violence.  The amygdala's role is evaluating the emotional importance of sensory information.  A lower amygdala volume reduces this ability; consequently, a violent response is more likely. 

The limbic system connects to other systems related to stress and aggression; however, brain anatomy does not function in isolation, for instance, 'messages' (neurotransmitters and hormones) are sent, received and regulated between these structures.

Neurotransmitters related to stress and aggression are serotonin and dopamine.  If serotonin is deficient it heightens activity in the amygdala.  This would suggest that when the amygdala is stimulated by external events, it becomes more active, causing the person to be more impulsive and making aggression more likely.  Virkkunen, (1985) compared serotonin levels from impulsive and non-impulsive criminals.  The rates in the impulsive criminals were significantly lower, suggesting aggression is more likely.

Testosterone is a male sex hormone that is thought to increase aggression levels from puberty onwards and is also thought to influence serotonin activity.  Dabbs et al., (1997) study showed that testosterone tested on prisoners convicted of violent crimes were higher than the testosterone levels seen from prisoners convicted on non-violent crimes.  However, testosterone levels change rapidly in response to interactions such as competition; therefore, it is unclear whether there is a cause or effect relationship as social status may lead to higher testosterone levels.  The higher level of oestradiol in the female reproductive system corresponds to a decrease in levels of aggression; whereas a greater increase in cortisol is linked to a greater increase in levels of aggressive behaviour.

Individuals can be more or less aggressive than others, depending on their genetic influences.  For example, DNA would code for specific features such as the level of neurotransmitters and possibly brain structure itself.  Selective breeding carried out on animals has found aggression can be transmitted from parent to offspring, supporting the genetic explanation of aggression.  However, this is questioned, especially by the Seville Statement, which states it would be scientifically incorrect to say that humans have inherited the aggression present in animals and furthermore, there are no scientific evidences that show genes produce individuals that are more predisposed to aggression. (UNESCO, 1983)

Twin studies have been a significant contributing factor to support the biological aggression theory.  Coccaro et al. (1997) compared monozygotic and dizygotic twins and showed a concordance rate of criminal behaviour.  He found that monozygotic twins had a greater concordance rate demonstrating some genetic effect.  However, the absence of a 100% concordance rate would suggest the importance of environmental impacts.  Empiricists would argue that monozygotic twins share a more similar environment and possibly the same role models and imitate each other and often share behaviour traits more than dizygotic twins.  These factors could also be a major influence on the greater concordance rate.

In contrast, it has been suggested that monozygotic twins that do not share the same environment (adopted) share some of the same traits, such as personality and temperament. (Bouchard et al., 1999)  This suggests that certain individuals can have a biological risk and those with the genetic vulnerability (Diathesis) would be particularly vulnerable to an environmental trigger.  For example, a gene that is thought to influence aggression is the MAOA gene named the 'warrior gene' (as it is more prevalent in communities with a history of warfare).  The gene is only found on the X chromosome; it is suggested to affect levels of neurotransmitters.

Caspi et al., (2002) study of the MAOA gene expression showed that males with low levels of expression of this gene exhibited more violent behaviour, but only if they were abused in childhood.  Females were unaffected, possibly because they have a second X chromosome.  Therefore, gene-environment interplay points out that nature and nurture are intrinsically linked.

By contrast to social learning theory, the frustration-aggression hypothesis and institutional aggression theory, this approach excludes the value of cognition in changing aggressive behaviour through therapies like CBT and is deterministic in its view of human nature.  It also denies the concept of free will as it suggests that humans are controlled by their genetic makeup, brain structure or hormone level.  This is a reductionist approach, narrowing down the complexity of human behaviour to a single cause.  Following this line of reasoning, the best behavioural modification strategy would be bio-chemical; for instance, SSRI's which increases serotonin in the brain.  Critics argue this approach lacks validity, providing an incomplete explanation as it does not consider environmental factors and the complexity of aggression.

It may be concluded from this, that there is no simple delineation of human aggression and the potential for aggression is latent within everyone.  Yet, it seems stimulated and controlled by social, situational, cultural and biological variables.  Some environments provoke aggression in people more regularly than others do, and the degree of behaviour modification(s) needed for individuals is far harder to pursue.  All approaches discussed are limited in scope when observed individually.  However, if the complex interaction between theories deriving from both nature and nurture is recognised they gain traction.  Studies on aggression and aggressive behaviour modification are very male biased and as such the results are coloured by androcentrism; consequently, more research must be carried out into aggression perpetrated by females if a more inclusive theory is to be found.  Only then, can the devastating impact of aggression in our homes, workplaces and society at large be reduced.

(2012 words excluding cover page and references)

References

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