Behaviour

This essay will consider the Behaviourist and Biological stances within key debates. 

The role of nature versus nurture is a key debate in psychology. The theory of nature is that a human's genetic predisposition defines how they behave and is the view espoused by nativists.  The nurture theory is that people behave in certain ways because they learn to do so as a result of the influence of one's environment and is the view of empiricists. 

The behaviourist approach involves classical or operant conditioning, which are collectively known as 'learning theory. These are highly scientific and observable and take the stance of nurture over nature, where one learns through direct experience. The empirical view posits the 'tabula rasa’ – the thought that individuals are born without built-in mental content and so, are "blank slates". The role of environmental factors in determining our behaviour is emphasised to the exclusion of innate or inherited factors. This theory also denies the influence of one’s thought processes or cognitive processes. 

Classical conditioning is an objective, basic learning form which involves learning a new behaviour via association of a previously neutral nonrelated stimulus. Two stimuli are paired together to create a learned (or predicted) response; the stages of conditioning a response via association can be seen in Pavlov's experiment (1904). 

Operant conditioning is when a behaviour becomes engrained in response to exposure to reward and punishment. A behaviour that is followed by pleasant rewards is likely to be repeated, whereas behaviour that is followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated. An example of this behaviour can be found in the "Skinner Box" experiment where a rat received a reward of food for pulling a lever after a light was flashed. Behaviourists also discovered that different schedules of reinforcement had different effects on the speed of learning and extinction. A variable ratio seems to have the greatest outcome for speed of learning and slowest rate of extinction; however, it could be argued that it could be creating a form of addictive behaviour and could be used for nefarious purposes, for example, in the gambling industry. (Science ABC, 2019) 

Watson and Rayner's (1920) experiment on Little Albert showed that classical conditioning could be applied to humans. In this experiment, the continuous pairing of a white rat with a startlingly loud noise caused a response of fear. Albert showed a phobia to a stimulus that he previously had no fear too. This phobia stimulus generalised to other stimuli similar to the rat. The experiment was also used to discover how long these fears would persist. They discovered that over time the conditioned response does not become permanently established if the unconditioned stimulus is absent for a time (extinction); however, a spontaneous recovery can be created again. 

The benefits of Watson and Raynor’s research are that it employs the scientific method and is conducted in laboratories. The research was empirical and objective and as such is reliable and replicable. However, this experiment is now widely condemned as unethical. Critics would argue that it was an unnatural situation which may not reflect learning in everyday situations so does not offer a full explanation for the development of phobias. The sample was small as only one participant was and so had poor population validity. 

The benefit of this approach is that it was conducted using scientific principles. It is empirical and objective and so can be replicated in an artificial environment. It is useful in basic habit-forming. It is one which is used in dog training. It could be argued that it could be used to influence positive behaviour. It can be used as a reward system in education. The process could be reversed to help in the treatment of phobias by using systematic desensitisation. The reductionist approach focuses on less complex animals' behaviour reducing it to its smallest parts so it can be studied more easily. These findings are then extrapolated to human behaviour. This theory assumes that humans are simply a more sophisticated animal and could effectively be 'programmed'. However, it could be argued that the ease of training dogs is caused by their heightened need for survival. (Osterloff, 2019) This may be present in humans or may be less so. Critics would argue that the reductionist approach lacks validity and it could be argued that this can lead to incomplete explanations. It could be argued that animal research cannot be extrapolated to human behaviour as it denies the notion of free will and the importance of thoughts and cognition in behaviour. A further criticism is that it implies that all behaviour is governed by reward and punishment when, in fact, it could be far more complex.

These views were softened by Bandura (1963) as he thought that people were able to learn by observing the behaviour of other people. His theory is considered the 'bridge' between cognitive and behaviourist learning theories. For example, in Bandura et. al.’s (1961) the “Bobo Doll” experiments showed that those who observed a behaviour by those regarded as models were more likely to imitate that behaviour. However, the identification of the model influenced behaviour. Another outcome found that the positive or negative consequences of the observed behaviour had influenced outcome (a behaviour that was rewarded was more likely to be imitated by the observer) and this is called vicarious reinforcement. Bandura's Social Learning Theory (neo-behaviourism) posits that people use thought and can learn from one another. 

Supporters would argue that Bandura’s theory would explain cultural differences in behaviour. This is because it suggests behaviour is learnt from those around us. In contrast to the Biological approach which does not take cultural differences into account. Consequently, this is a strength of Bandura’s theory. 

Building on this approach highlights the importance of cognition in learning. This offers a more comprehensive view of behaviour in embracing cognition and is one of the strengths of SLT. This means a child would have the ability to judge a behaviour seen from a sibling as being rewarded or punished and perhaps move on to predict the outcome and generalise types of behaviour. 

Critics would argue that Bandura’s research was disadvantaged because it used a lab environment. As this setup was staged, for example, the setting was artificial and the model and child were strangers, it did not reflect real life situations. This is a problem as the findings can only be generalised with caution and limits how useful Bandura’s research is in explaining behaviour. 

Supporters would argue the SLT shows that it is possible to learn from watching others. If individuals see role models behaving a certain way, they are more likely to imitate it. Thus, it could be used to reduce anti-social behaviour, for example, the watershed for TV violence. This is a strength for the SLT approach as we can restrict what is publicly shown. 

Critics would argue that the SLT rejects the influence of biological factors. Testosterone in males is found to make them more aggressive. Behaviour cannot be entirely based on learning; biology must play a role.

In contrast to the behaviourist approach is the biological (medical) approach and it takes a strictly scientist stance in line with nature rather than nurture. The biological approach believes that all behaviour is caused by physiological processes and examines thoughts, feelings and behaviours as a biological cause. Examples of what this approach would encompass are the consequences of genetics, brain structure, brain chemistry, hormones and evolution.

Neurotransmitters are "chemical messengers" in an individual's central nervous system. One neuron communicates with another neuron at the synapse where neurotransmitters relay the message. One core neurotransmitter is dopamine. It is released when we do anything that produces pleasure and it is known to be involved in addiction. Dopamine has also been linked with the illness schizophrenia. (Brisch et al., 2014). 

Hormones are biomedical substances that travel from endocrine glands in the body to organs through the blood. Hormones are produced in large quantities but disappear very quickly and their effects are slow in comparison with the speed of the nervous system. An example of a hormone that can affect behaviour is testosterone; it could be thought to influence aggressive behaviour. (Batrinos, 2012) 

Another important facet of the Biological Approach to understanding human behaviour is related to brain structure. Many different areas of the brain have been identified as specialised for certain functions. For example, the frontal lobe is thought to be responsible for thinking, planning, organising, problem-solving, emotions and behavioural control. 

It could be argued that the founder of evolutionary theories of behaviour is Darwin. Darwin's theory of natural selection is a process involving random inheritable changes over successive generations. Successful changes would increase the chance of survival and reproduction to the next generation (passing successful genes on). It is suggested that the most common phobias are related to things that posed a threat to our ancestors.   

Behaviour can be inherited as determined by genetic information. However, when looking at how genes work, it is important to understand the difference between genotype and phenotype. Genes are inherited instructions from one's parents (two sets – one from each parent). The genotype of an individual depends on dominant and recessive genes. Genes are then blended with environmental and developmental factors, for example, a balanced diet, access to education and stimulation. The finished product of this blending is one's phenotype. 

Twin studies have been an important contributing factor to support the biological theory. Gottesman's (1991) study on Schizophrenia supports this theory. His study compared the results of 40 different twin studies over a period of 60 years. He compared concordance rates of monozygotic twins with dizygotic twins to investigate the heritability of schizophrenia which could be argued to be formed by nature. He was able to show that monozygotic twins had a greater concordance rate which shows some genetic effect. However, the absence of a 100% concordance rate would suggest the importance of environmental effects. Empiricists would argue that monozygotic twins share a more similar environment and possibly the same role models and imitate each other and often share behaviour traits more than dizygotic twins. These factors could also be a major influence on the greater concordance rate. In contrast, it has been suggested that monozygotic twins that do not share the same environment (adopted) share some of the same traits such as personality and temperament (Bouchard et.al., 1999) 

Similarly, Chiao's (2017) study using secondary data on how the 'depression gene' interacts with environment and culture, the study suggested that although East Asians carry twice the rate of the short-SERT 'depression gene' than those of the Western world where depression is far more prevalent. This suggests a conflict on the thinking of nativists as the same gene would generate a vulnerability in one culture and resilience in another. The view of empiricists is that cultural difference and the social support experienced in collective cultures such as Asian cultures are shielding against negative life events that cause depression. In contrast, individualist cultures are more susceptible to depression.

Both studies suggest that groups having a predisposed vulnerability (Diathesis) and an environmental stress later in life could trigger the development of the disorders. It could be argued that environmental stressors would affect those with a genetic susceptibility differently to those who are not genetically susceptible. 

It may be concluded from this that nature and nurture are intrinsically linked, and it would be difficult to decide whether nature is more important than nurture as evidence supports both sides. As such all the theories are weaker in isolation from one another. However, they gain traction when they are understood as coexisting together. Moreover, as humans are complex entities, it would be disadvantageous to explain behaviour with reference to a single cause. We are able to see that biology does play a major role in one’s behaviour. It is as if biological factors take the form of an encryption code and it is the environment which seems to determine if and how this code is displayed.

(1997 words excluding cover page and references) 

References 

Asu.edu. (2017). “Sources of Human Psychological Differences: The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart” (1990), by Thomas J. Bouchard Jr, David T. Lykken, Matthew McGue, Nancy L. Segal and Auke Tellegen | The Embryo Project Encyclopedia. [online] Available at: https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/sources-human-psychological-differences-minnesota-studytwins-reared-apart-1990-thomas-j. 

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Vicarious reinforcement and imitative learning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology.67 (6), 601-607. 

Batrinos, M.L. (2012). Testosterone and aggressive behavior in man. International Journal of Endocrinology & Metabolism, [online] 10(3), pp.563–568. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3693622 

Brisch, R., Saniotis, A., Wolf, R., Bielau, H., Bernstein, H.-G., Steiner, J., Bogerts, B., Braun, A.K., Jankowski, Z., Kumaritlake, J., Henneberg, M. and Gos, T. (2014). The Role of Dopamine in Schizophrenia from a Neurobiological and Evolutionary Perspective: Old Fashioned, but Still in Vogue. Frontiers in Psychiatry, [online] 5. Available at: https://dx.doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyt.2014.00047. 

Chiao, J.Y. and Blizinsky, K.D. (2013). Population Disparities in Mental Health: Insights From Cultural Neuroscience. American Journal of Public Health, 103(S1), pp.S122–S132. 

Gottesman I. I. (1991). Schizophrenia Genesis: The Origins of Madness. New York, NY: Freeman. 

Osterloff, E. (2019). What is natural selection? [online] Nhm.ac.uk. Available at: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/what-is-natural-selection.html. 

Pavlov, I.P. (1906). The scientific investigation of the psychical faculties or processes in the higher animals.Science, 24, 613–619 

Science ABC. (2019). What Schedule of Reinforcement does Gambling Involve? [online] Available at: https://www.scienceabc.com/social-science/difficult-stop-gambling.html 

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. 

Watson, J.B. & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3,1–14